The Petrine Doctrine is based upon Catholic tradition, which proclaims the legitimacy and supremacy of the Pope over all other bishops of the Catholic Church. This Doctrine is founded upon the book of Matthew in the Bible. Matthew 16: 18-19 states: "18 And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. 19 And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of Heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in Heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in Heaven." These verses tell of Jesus's proclamation that Peter, and thus his successors, shall be the head of the Church as the sole custodians of the Christian faith.
Vatican Council I defined the primacy of the bishop of Rome over the whole Catholic Church as an essential institution of the Church that can never be relinquished. This primacy is thus crucial to the understanding of the church from a Catholic viewpoint. At the same time, the history of papal primacy has always been imperfect and much-debated.[1]
According to Karl Schatz, both Catholic and non-Catholic scholars agree that multiple Biblical texts, in addition to the three Classical Petrine texts found in the Gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John, allude to the primacy of the papal line from Peter [2] They also point to the fact that the strongest writings of Peter's primacy were written after his death, meaning that Peter was not just a figure in history, but one that remained of importance to the body of the Catholic Church. However, scholars do not agree on whether the papal lineage was allotted for in Jesus’ proclamation of Peter as the "rock" of the Church.[3]
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The 2006 edition Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Catholic Church defines the term "Pope" as derived froma Latin word for "father": "In the W. Church the title is now restricted to the Bishop of Rome in respect of his capacity as supreme head on earth of the universal Church; in early times it was used of any bishop. In the East it was apparently confined to the Patriarch of Alexandria, who is still so styled, but from the 6th century the chancery at Constantinople normally kept it for the Bishop of Rome."
The Dictionary defines "Papacy" as referring to "the system of centralized government in the Church exercised by him, along with the claim that by Divine appointment he has universal authority over Christendom. According to Roman Catholic doctrine, St. Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, and the Pope is not only his lineal successor in that office, but also inherits the unique commission given him by Christ (cf. especially Matthew 16:18 and John 21:17). The Papal Primacy was never formally accepted by the Eastern Church and it was repudiated by Protestant communions. From 756 to 1870 the Papacy was also a territorial power ruling a large part of central Italy."
The Oxford Dictionary defines the term Apostolic Succession similarly to our previous definition of Papal Primacy, also pointing out the challenges this term has undergone: "The method whereby the ministry of the Church is held to be derived from Christ through the Apostles by a continuous succession; it has usually been associated with an assertion that the succession has been maintained by a series of bishops. The continuity of the succession, emphasized by Clement of Rome before the end of the 1st cent., has occasionally been disputed; the necessity of it, widely taught within the historic Church, is denied by most Protestants and asserted only with qualifications by some other theologians…" [4]
It is debated whether or not Saint Peter founded the Church in Rome, see also Early centers of Christianity#Rome. St. Peter is commonly accepted as the first bishop of Rome, and thus automatically granted the title of the first Pope. Peter is usually placed first in Biblical lists of the apostles, and is often the leader of the twelve in Biblical Stories (Matthew 10:1-4, Matthew 16:13-16). It was Peter who gave the sermon on Pentecost (Acts 2).
There is no evidence that the Catholic Church recognized a Pope until St. Pius I in the 2nd century. Even then, it is unclear as to whether or not the term itself existed until the 5th century. The popes who are listed following as Peter (Linus, Clement, etc.) did not function as supreme among the bishops. It seems that the position of Pope at this time was more of a civic authority in Rome, rather than a head of the Catholic Church.
Another popular debate includes Ephesians 2:20, which states that the Church was instead built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Jesus Christ being the cornerstone, rather than Peter himself. Throughout the Bible (1 Corinthians 10:4, 1 Peter2:4, and Psalm 118:22 and Isaiah 28:16), Jesus refers to himself as the rock (the Greek term being petra, while Peter is referred to as petros).
Anselm of Havelburg writes of Peter in his Dialogi: "Peter was the senior in age of the apostles, more sure in faith, more simple in hearing the words of eternal life… more ready in responding among Christ and the apostles, more effective in healing the sick even with the shadow of his body. After the Ascension of the Lord he took over in place of Christ that young and primitive church… Therefore it is not right that any of the faithful should in any way doubt or put in question, but they should hold most firmly that Peter was appointed by the Lord chief of the apostles.[5]
Irenaeus has been called the most important witness of the Christianity in the 2nd century.[6] Taught by Polycarp, who had been instructed by John the apostle, Irenaeus became bishop of Lyons in 178 CE. In his Against the Heresies, Irenaeus wrote, "Although there are many dialects in the world, the force of the tradition is one and the same. For the same faith is held and handed down by the churches established in the German states, the Spains, among the Celtic tribes, in the East, in Libya, and in the central portions of the world…"[7] In Book 3, Irenaeus continues his defense of the unity of the church around the bishop, writing, "By pointing out the apostolic tradition and faith announced to mankind, which has been brought down to our time by successions of bishops, in the greatest, most ancient, and well known church, founded and established by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, at Rome, we can confound all who in any other way… gather more than they ought." al.[8]
Iraenaus asserted the Doctrine of Apostolic Succession to counter the claims of heretics, especially the Gnostics who were attacking the theology and authority of the mainstream Church. He stated that one could find true teaching in several leading episcopal sees, not just at Rome. The doctrine he asserted, therefore, has two parts: lineage from the Apostles and right teaching. Even today a bishop can be in the line of succession, but schismatic and heretical as is the case with many episcopi vaganates who claim to or may have Catholic Orders, but have no following and have deviated from the Catholic Orthodox Faith as defined by the larger denominations such as the Orthodox, Anglicans, Roman Catholics and Lutherans.
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was well known for his insistence on the authority of the bishop. In his writings to the church at Smyrna in 115 CE, he encouraged the Smyrnaeans to "Avoid divisions, as the beginning of evil. Follow, all of you, the bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the father; and follow the presbytery as the apostles. Let no man do aught pertaining to the Church apart from the bishop. Wheresoever the bishop appears, there let the people be, even as wheresoever Christ Jesus is, there is the Catholic Church" [9]
Born in Carthage around 155 CE, Tertullian became a priest around the age of forty and worked tirelessly to defend the faith. In his Scorpiace of 208 CE, Tertullian wrote, "No delay or inquest will meet Christians on the threshold… For though you think that heaven is still shut up, remember that the Lord left the keys of it to Peter here, and through him to the Church, which keys everyone will carry with him, if he has been questioned and made confession [of faith]." [10] Here, Tertullian not only defends Peter's primacy but also the Christian faith.
Thascius Cyprianus was made bishop of Carthage in 248 CE. but died only ten years later. Throughout his writings, Cyprian asserts that the Rock is Peter, and the Church rests upon him. He also claims that as the Church is settled upon the bishops, they too have authority. He writes, "They, who have departed from the Church, do not allow the Church to recall and bring back the lapsed. There is one God, and one Christ, and one Church, and one chair founded by the voice of the Lord on the rock. Another altar cannot be set up, nor a new priesthood made, besides the one altar and the one priesthood. Whoever gathers elsewhere scatters." [11] In his 251 CE. De Catholicae Ecclesiae Unitate, Cyprian asks, "He who deserts the chair of Peter, upon whom the Church was founded, does he trust himself to be in the Church?" [12]
John Chrysostom was born at Antioch around 347 and would fight for the reform of the church until his exile in 404. His homilies emphasize his belief in the primacy. St. Chrysostom called Peter "the leader of the choir, the mouth of all the apostles, the head of that tribe, the ruler of the whole world, the foundation of the Church, the ardent lover of Christ…"[13] His writings also emphasize the mortality of Peter, linking him more closely to the people of the Church.
Saint Augustine was born in Numidia in 354 and was baptized in Milan in 387. He was also bishop of Hippo from 397 til his death in 430. Augustine taught that Peter was first amongst the apostles, and thus represents the church.[14] His Sermo states, "For Peter in many places in the Scriptures appears to represent the Church, especially in that place where it was said "I give to thee the keys… shall be loosed in heaven". What! did Peter receive these keys, and Paul not receive? Did Peter receive and John and James not receive, and the rest of the apostles? But since in a figure Peter represented the Church, what was given to him singly was given to the Church." [15] His 395 C.E. Contra Epistolam Manichaei states, "There are many other things which rightly keep me in the bosom of the Catholic Church… The succession of the priests keeps me, from the very seat of the apostle Peter (to whom the Lord after his resurrection gave charge to feed his sheep) down to the present episcopate." [16]
Pope Innocent I held the papal office from 402 to 417. Modern theories of Papal Primacy developed around Innocent and his writings. In a 416 letter to Decentius, bishop of Eugubium, Innocent writes, "Who does not know or observe that it [the church order] was delivered by Peter the chief of the apostles to the Roman church, and is kept until now, and ought to be retained by all, and that nothing ought to be imposed or introduced which has no authority, or seems to derive its precedents elsewhere?" [17] It is also during this time that bishops began to recognize Innocent's primacy as Pope over other bishops in the West. This is made evident, among others, in a letter from the Council at Mileve to Innocent in 416 CE, which alludes the authority of "his holiness" drawn from the authority of Scripture.[18] The doctrine of Primacy was beginning to take shape with Innocent's papacy.
Based on his knowledge of the Petrine texts of the Gospel, and his writings which expound upon it, it is easy to see that Pope Leo I identified with the authority bestowed on Peter as bishop of Rome. Leo himself was consecrated bishop of Rome in 440. He writes that "The right of this power did indeed pass on to other apostles, and the order of this decree passed on to all the chiefs of the Church; but not in vain was that which was imparted to all entrusted but one. Therefore this is commended to Peter separately, because all the rulers of the Church are invested with the figure of Peter… So then in Peter the strength of all is fortified, and the help of divine grace is so ordered that the stability which through Christ is given to Peter, through Peter is conveyed to the apostles" (Giles, 280). The Council of Chalcedon would later refer to Leo as "him who had been charged with the custody of the vine by the savior." [19]
The Gregorian Reform Movement was rather a series of movements many of which involved the reform of the Roman Church, headed by Gregory VII, formerly the Archdeacon Hildebrand. Gregory became Pope in 1073 with the objective of reforming not the body of the church, but a purification of the clergy in general.[20] Gregory is perhaps most recognized with the quarrel between himself and King Henry IV of Germany, known as the "Investiture Contest". Gregory's Dictus Pape outlines his policies and ideals, as well as those of the Roman Church. In this work, Gregory claims that the pope has power to depose and restore bishops, and also effectively reduces the authority of other bishops.[21] This doctrine supported the idea that Rome and the church here also afforded primacy over all other churches. Gregory's papacy also bolstered the power of the Church over that of the State. The Gregorians defended the ideal of a separation of powers, claiming "Let kings have what belongs to kings, and priests have what belongs to priests." [22] The Petrine Primacy was now more affirmed than ever.
Many challenges faced the Popes claiming primacy throughout the history of Catholicism. The Edict of Milan, the Council of Nicea, and the First Council of Constantinople all dealt with the issue of primacy in that they amended the power of the popes over the other bishops. The third cannon of the First Council of Constantinople of 381 declares Constantinople the new Rome, gives the Bishop of Rome the seat of honor and gives the Bishop of Constantinople second place in honor. The Council of Ephesus in 431 offers debate as to whether the results determine that the Pope is at the head of the Church, or rather that it is under the authority of a council of bishops (Giles, 238-256). Although the highlight of the Council of Chalcedon in 451 was the confession of the Person of Christ, the Council also resulted in limitations to the powers of the bishops. Many letters of the Council identify its position as in agreement with papal primacy. Those present employ titles such as "the most holy and beloved of God" and "ecumenical archbishop and patriarch of great Rome" to address Pope Leo. Thus, as not all can be satisfied with the results, The Council of Chalcedon resulted in a schism with the Oriental Orthodox Church.[23]
Internally, people questioned who rightfully was pope, while others wondered as to the role the Pope was to play outside of Rome.[24] The papacy's most widely-known crisis, as well as its largest challenge to authority, came with the "Great Schism" in the late Middle Ages, dating from 1378-1417.[25] Seven popes ruled from Avignon in France in the early 14th century, until Gregory XI risked returning to turbulent Italy and the Roman seat.[26] Following the close of the Avignon papacy in 1377, Urban VI, an Italian, took the reins over a predominantly French college of Cardinals. The Cardinals called the election into question and elected Clement VII as Pope. Germany, Italy, England, and the rest of Northern and Eastern Europe remained loyal to Urban, while France, Spain, Scotland, and Rome followed Clement VII (1378–1394) and his successor, Benedict XIII (1394–1417) who would reside in Avignon. Although thought many times to have been improved, the divide between the two papacies has never been rejoined, calling into question both the legitimacy of the popes and the Petrine Doctrine itself.